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Kingdom of the Lombards
The Kingdom of the Lombards (''regnum Langobardorum''), later the Kingdom of (all) Italy (''regnum totius Italiae''), was an early medieval state established by the Lombards, a Germanic-speaking people, on the Italian Peninsula between 568–69. The king was traditionally elected by the highest-ranking aristocrats, the dukes, and all attempts to establish a hereditary dynasty failed. The kingdom was divided into a varying number of duchies, ruled by the semi-autonomous dukes, which were in turn subdivided into gastaldates at the level of each city. The capital of the kingdom and centre of its political life was Pavia.
The Lombard invasion was opposed by the Byzantine Empire, which retained control of much of the peninsula until the mid-8th century. The Exarchate of Ravenna and the Duchy of Rome separated the northern duchies, or ''Langobardia major'', from the two large southern duchies of Spoleto and Benevento, which constituted ''Langobardia minor''. Because of this division, the southern duchies were more autonomous than the smaller northern duchies.
The Lombards gradually adopted Roman titles, names and traditions. By the time Paul the Deacon was writing in the late 8th century, the Lombardic language, dress and hairstyles had all disappeared.〔"The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 500-c. 700" by Paul Fouracre and Rosamond McKitterick (page 8)〕 Initially the Lombards were Arians at odds with the Papacy both religiously and politically. By the end of the 7th century, their conversion to Catholicism was all but complete. The conflict with the Papacy continued, and was responsible for their gradual loss of power in the face of the Franks, who conquered the kingdom in 774. Charlemagne, the king of the Franks, adopted the title "King of the Lombards", but never managed to control Benevento. A reduced ''regnum Italiae'', a heritage of the Lombards, continued in existence for centuries. The so-called Iron Crown of Lombardy, which may have originated in Lombard Italy as early as the 7th century, continued to crown Kings of Italy down to Napoleon Bonaparte.
== Administration ==
The earliest Lombard law code, the ''Edictum Rothari'', may allude to the use of seal rings, but it is not until the reign of Ratchis that they became an integral part of royal administration, when the king required their use on passports. The only evidence for their use at the ducal level comes from the Duchy of Benevento, where two private charters contain requests for the duke to confirm them with his seal. The existence of seal rings "testifies to the tenacity of Roman traditions of government".〔N. Everett (2003), ''Literacy in Lombard Italy, c. 568–744'' (Cambridge), 170.〕
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